This was a project I did for the 2017 Ice Dragon A&S Pentathlon. I think I came in second in the beverages section. I'm not entirely certain. 

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Water of Cloves

Description:

Cordial based on an mid 16th century, French recipe, from Charles Estienne and Jean Liebault ’s L’Agriculture et Maison Rustique. Originally in published French in 1564. First English translation in 1600 by Richard Surflet, reprinted 1606, then revised and republished as Maison Rustique, or, the Countrey Farme by Gervase Markham in 1616.

Intoduction:

To begin with, allow me to define what a cordial is. A cordial is a flavored alcoholic beverage, normally wine, that has been distilled.[1] The majority of cordial recipes date to the end of the SCA period but there are enough recipes that we can conclude that they were well known and popular. Some modern cordials, such as Benedictine and Frangelico, date back to the 16th and 17th Century.[2] The theory of distilling itself dates back to the 4th Century BCE when Aristotle wrote Meteorology in which he details the specifics of the process.[3]

The earliest European records of flavored alcohols were written by a Spanish alchemist by the name of Arnold de Vila Nova. In 1240 he wrote the Boke of Wine in which he details methods for flavoring alcohol and proposed the restorative and life giving properties of these beverages. One of Arnold’s students, Raymond Lully, proclaimed that their production was “a divinely inspired gift from Heaven.”[4] Legal documents dating to 1411 mention the distillation of wine into brandy in the Armagnac region of France.[5]

By the 14th Century, the drinking of these beverages had become very popular in Italy and had also spread into France. A Tuscany native, Catherine de Medici,[6] is often credited with bringing them with her to France. There is some discussion as to whether or not she was the first to introduce them to France, but there is no doubt that she certainly increased the popularity and acceptance of these drinks among the nobility of France.

Most of the surviving recipes offer cordials for medicinal use rather than recreational use, and most of these recipes are listed along side of those for liniments, surfeits, poultices and other medicinal tonics. It is more than likely that the liqueur evolved as a sweet beverage as to counter act the bitterness of the herbs and other ingredients. But is not my intention to reproduce a modern cough syrup, nor is it to flavor brandy or vodka and pretend that it’s period. This recipe will be made from infused wine which is then distilled.

Details of the original recipe:

Water of Cloues [p462]
Take equall parts of Cloues, Ginger, and flowers of Rosemarie, infuse them in verie good Wine the space of eight daies: distill the whole: This vvater comforteth the stomacke,* assuageth the paines and vvringings of the bellie, killeth vvormes, and maketh fat folke to become leane, or maketh fat the leane, if they drinke it mixt with sugar.[7]

Redaction:

Take equal parts of cloves, ginger, and flowers of rosemary. Infuse them in a very good wine for eight days. Distil the whole. This water comforts the stomach, lessens the pains and cramps of the belly, kills worms and make fat folk to become skinny or make the fat become lean, if they drink it mixed with sugar.

• 1.5L of French Bordeaux wine, Chateau La Gourtere brand
• About 1/2 ounce sliced Tailand ginger
• About 1/2 ounce Rosemary leaves
• About 1/4 ounce Rosemary flowers
• 10 Cloves

I placed the herbs and spices into the wine bottle and let sit for eight days. Afterwards, I poured the infused wine into my “still” and distilled it. The distilled liquid was moved into a new bottle and sealed.

Technique:

I will start with the cloves, first. The original recipe called for equal amounts of herbs and spices, but the cloves that I have are very powerful and can quickly overpower any other flavors. I did not want to risk using a full half ounce and ending up with a mouth numbing beverage. I would have used four or five, in a similar recipe, but I used ten because the cordial is called Water of Cloves.

Ginger: I picked up a hand of fresh ginger, and sliced up about a half an ounce. I think that my ginger would be far fresher and superior to anything available in France in the 16th century. The recipe does not give any measurements: either for the additions or for the wine required. I used a half an ounce for the ginger and rosemary (to be discussed below) based on my experience with brewing. A half an ounce of fresh ginger will be strong enough to stand up to four or five of the cloves that I use for spiced wines and meads. As I did not want this beverage to turn into a toothache remedy, I also did not want it to taste like spicy ginger beer. I intended for the final product to have subtle flavors, not be overpowering.

Rosemary: I used a half an ounce of leaves to match the amount of ginger used. I actually grew my own rosemary and let it flower. I harvested the flowers and stashed them in my freezer until I was ready to start this project. Since presentation was not an issue, and that the flowers would be soaking in wine, the freezing process did not damage the flowers relative to what I wanted from them. However, I only managed to gather about 1/4 ounce of flowers and the flowers, when fresh, really did not have much of a flavor. When frozen, they had none. To ensure that there would be rosemary flavor in this beverage, I added 1/2 ounce of fresh rosemary leaves, not the stems, purchased from the grocery store.

I did not feel the need to process the additions, other than to slice the ginger into small enough pieces to fit into the wine bottle. Since they will be steeping in the wine for just over a week, I saw no need to crush or grind them into smaller pieces: the alcohol of the wine can take the time to extract the water and alcohol soluble flavors from them. There are some recipes that call for the additions to be ground into power and then, immediately, added to the still. The recipe that I chose does not call for anything more than soaking in wine.

The medicinal properties of these three giants of flavor were well known:

Rosemary:[8]

Our garden Rosemary is so well known, that I need not describe it. Government and virtues : The Sun claims privilege in it, and it is under the celestial Ram. It is an herb of as great use with us in these days as any whatsoever, not only for physical but civil purposes. The physical use of it (being my present task) is very much used both for inward and outward diseases, for by the warming and comforting heat thereof it helps all cold diseases both of the head, stomach, liver, and belly. The decoction thereof in wine, helps the cold distillations of rheum into the eyes, and all other cold diseases of the head and brain, as the giddiness or swimmings therein, drowsiness or dullness of the mind and senses like a stupidness, the dumb palsy, or loss of speech, the lethargy, and fallen- sickness, to be both drank, and the temples bathed therewith. It helps the pains in the gums and teeth, by rheum falling into them, not by putrefaction, causing an evil smell from them, or a stinking breath. It helps a weak memory, and quickens the senses. It is very comfortable to the stomach in all the cold griefs thereof, helps both retention of meat, and digestion, the decoction or powder being taken in wine. It is a remedy for the windiness in the stomach, bowels, and spleen, and expels it powerfully. It helps those that are liver-grown, by opening the obstructions thereof. It helps dim eyes, and procures a clear sight, the flowers thereof being taken all the while it is flowering every morning fasting, with bread and salt. Both Dioscorides and Galen say, That if a decoction be made thereof with water, and they that have the yellow jaundice exercise their bodies directly after the taking thereof, it will certainly cure them. The flowers and conserve made of them are singularly good to comfort the heart, and to expel the contagion of the pestilence; to burn the herb in houses and chambers, corrects the air in them. Both the flowers and leaves are very profitable for women that are troubled with the whites, if they be daily taken. The dried leaves shred small, and taken in a pipe, as tobacco is taken, helps those that have any cough, phthisic, or consumption, by warming and drying the thin distillations which cause those diseases. The leaves are very much used in bathings; and made into ointments or oil, are singularly good to help cold benumbed joints, sinews, or members. The chymical oil drawn from the leaves and flowers, is a sovereign help for all the diseases aforesaid, to touch the temples and nostrils with two or three drops for all the diseases of the head and brain spoken of before; as also to take one drop, two, or three, as the case requires, for the inward griefs. Yet must it be done with discretion, for it is very quick and piercing, and therefore but a little must be taken at a time. There is also another oil made by insolation in this manner: Take what quantity you will of the flowers, and put them into a strong glass close stopped, tie a fine linen cloth over the mouth, and turn the mouth down into another strong glass, which being set in the sun, an oil will distil down into the lower glass, to bepreserved as precious for divers uses, both inward and outward, as a sovereign balm to heal the disease beforementioned, to clear dim sights, and to take away spots, marks, and scars in the skin.

Cloves: [9] It is vain to describe an herb so well known. Government and virtues : They are gallant, fine, temperate flowers, of the nature and under the dominion of Jupiter; yea, so temperate, that no excess, neither in heat, cold, dryness, nor moisture, can be perceived in them; they are great strengtheners both of the brain and heart, and will therefore serve either for cordials or cephalics, as your occasion will serve. There is both a syrup and a conserve made of them alone, commonly to be had at every apothecary’s. To take now and then a little of either, strengthens nature much, in such as are in consumptions. They are also excellently good in hot pestilent fevers, and expel poison.

Ginger:[10] Action, Medical Uses, and Dosage. Ginger is stimulant, rubefacient, errhine, and sialagogue. When chewed it occasions an increased flow of saliva, and when swallowed it acts as a stimulating tonic, stomachic, and carminative, increasing the secretion of gastric juice, exalting the excitability of the alimentary muscular system, and dispelling gases accumulated in the stomach and bowels. Prepared with rhubarb, in the form of cordial or syrup, few articles are more valuable in cholera morbus and cholera infantum, when there is coldness of the surface and extremities, and nausea and vomiting accompany. It is eminently useful in habitual flatulency, atonic dyspepsia, hysteria, and enfeebled and relaxed habits, especially of old and gouty individuals; and is excellent to relieve nausea, pains and cramps of the stomach and bowels, and to obviate tenesmus, and especially when those conditions are due to colds, or to the ingestion of unripe or otherwise unwholesome fruit. Ginger is occasionally of value in fevers, particularly where the salivary secretions are scanty and there is pain and movement of gases within the intestines. Here, though a stimulant, it will assist in producing sedation by re-establishing secretion and relieving the distressing gastro-intestinal annoyances.

Spicing wines was not an uncommon practice and it is believed to be the “father” of cordials and liqueurs. The spicing of wine is among the oldest of methods of fortifying the beverage and granting it better taste or medicinal properties. Specific commentaries and recipes for it can be found from early Roman Imperial times. Some spiced wines, such as hippocras,[11] were an industry into themselves by the 14th Century. A recipe from a collection of Norman French papers called “B. L. Additional 32085” dating to the reign of King Edward I[12] is as follows:[13]

28. ICI COMENCE COMENT L’EN DEIT FERE CLAREE. Pernez de kanele, de gyngivre, de maces, les deus parties; de gilofres, nois de muge, fuyle de Inde, la tierce partie; semence de fenoyl, anys, karewi, autaunt; kardamome, squinaunte, la quarte partie; spicanardi a la meitJ de tuttes les autres choses. E metez en pudre, e puys metez la pudre en une puche, e pernez vin blaunc ou vermail e versez desus la pudre e fetes coler com lescive, si averez claree; e taunt cum plus reversez e colez la chose avaunt colee, si averez vostre claree plus forte, e si vos n’avez pas tuz ces espices, pernez kanele e gingivre, maces, les deux parties; de gilofres e spicanardi a la meitJ de tuttes les autres choses, e metez en pudre, e colez cum devaunt est dist; si averez claree. Explicit.

28. HERE BEGIN INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING CLAREE. Take half a measure of cinnamon, ginger, and mace; a third of a measure of cloves, nutmeg, malabathrum; fennel, anise, and caraway seeds, in the same amount; cardamom and squinant, a fourth of a measure; and spikenard in the amount of half the quantity of al the other spices. Grind this into a powder, and then put the powder in a pouch, and take white or red wine and pour it over the powder, wring it through the cloth, and you will have claree; the more you repeat the process, the stronger your claree will be. If you do not have all these spices, take two measures of cinnamon, ginger, and mace, cloves and spikenard to half the quantity of all other ingredients; grind to a powder, and strain as described above, and you will have claree.

Sir Kenelm Digbie listed the following hippocras recipe:

To make Ypocrasse for lords with gynger, synamon, and graines, sugour, and turnesol:and for comyn pepul, gynger, canell, longe peper, and clarifyed hony.

As I did not have the time to make wine, and let it age, I bought wine. As this is a French recipe, I used a French wine. I could have used an English wine, but no one had anything nice to say about English wine in the 16th century. I chose a red Bordeaux (a Grand Vin de Bordeaux) from Chateau La Goutere, whose vinyards are located “near Saint Emilon in Nouvelle-Aquitaine”.[14] I chose this style of wine not only because the Bordeaux region of France has been making wine since the time of the Romam Empire, but because the English imported it.

... By the mid 13th century, three fourths of England’s royal wine came from Bordeaux, at a freight charge of 8 shillings the ton. The wine fleet convened twice a year; in October for the “vintage” shipping, and in February for the “rack” shipping of wine drawn off the lees. We have Bordeaux’s export figures for seven years of the early 14th century, averaging 83,000 tonneaux of 12 score and 12 gallons each. England took about half of this, and when the new wine arrived, last year’s was halved in price, or even just thrown away. These wines were the common drink, lower in status the Mediterranean and Rhenish wines, but they were plentiful and cheap. Bordeaux made three kinds of wines: white, red , and clairet. Until about 1600, clairet meant a light colored wine, ranging from yellow, as distinct from white, to pink. To get the desired pink color, called “partridge-eye”, red and white wines were often mixed. Red wines then would have been very light. They were only on the skins one day, and absorbed little color and tannins. After the wine was drawn off, the remainder, redder and coarser, was used for tinting wine, or sold cheaply as “vin vermeilh” or “pin pin”. This amounted to about 15%.[15]

Samuel Pegge’s The Forme of Cury states in the prefence, “Wine is common, both red, and white... This article they partly had of their own growth, and partly by importation from France and Greece. They had also Rhenish, and probably several other sorts. The “vynegreke” is among the sweet wines....”

The most popular wines in the 14th century were (in order of preference) sweet Mediterranean wines, white Rhenish wines, and Claret. The red wines of Burgundy were highly prized, and could still be drunk after two years, but were scarce and more difficult to obtain in England. Claret was definately a young wine, when a new vintage arrived from Bordeaux, the price of the previous vintage was usually cut in half (or the old wine was simply discarded).[16]

Angharad ver’ Rhuawn posted on Stefan’s Florilegium the following, “They classified wines as red, white, and sweet. There is list of wines of all three sorts in John Russell’s Boke of Nurture, There are recipes that call specifically for red, some that call for white, some that call for specific sweet sorts (wine greke, vernage, etc.). I infer from this that period wines were not all markedly sweet, or they would not make the largest distinctions in that area.” The Book of Keruynge, published in 1508, makes the following list of wine names: Reed wyne, whyte wyne, claret whyne, osey, capryke, campolet, renysshe wyne maluely, bastarde, tyerre romney, muscadell, clarrey, raspys, vernage, vernage wyne cut, pymente and Ipocras.”

... By the reign of Edward III (1327-1377) the trade in French wine had reached amazing proportions. Ships of that time were rated at the number of tonnes (252 gallon casks of wine) they could carry. To this day, we speak of ship “tonnage” when we refer to ocean freight transport. The wine fleet would sail for France in late autumn, returning before Christmas with “new wine”. They would sail again after Easter in the spring, and return with “rack wine” of the same vintage. In 1372, the wine fleet consisted of some 200 ships, with average tonnage well over 50 tonnes per ship, for a total cargo of over 3 million gallons of wine that year. The English even had their own name for much of this wine. The French used the term clairet to refer to the light red wine of Bordeaux, before it was blended with heavier, darker red wine from elsewhere in France. It was this that the English came to call Claret. ... Meanwhile, back in Europe, William Turner published the first English book on wines, “A new Boke of the natures and properties of all Wines that are commonlye used here in England”, in 1568. It was primarily a physician’s view on wines, with Turner denouncing red wines, while advocating “whyte Rhennish and whyte French” wines. In 1577, William Harrison identified 56 varieties of small, weak wines (both red and white) that were drunk by the English people, and 30 kinds of sweet wines.[17]

The recipe called for very good wine. While Bordeaux was, at the time, considered “plentiful and cheap”, my 2010 vintage Bordeaux would be a very good wine by comparison, in my opinion. No mention was made as to what kind of wine to use, or what color. I picked a red wine as I felt that the stronger flavor of the wine and its tannins, would stand up to the cloves and ginger far better than a more subtle white wine.

Distillation:

To set the matter straight: distillation is illegal within the USA, and before I started this project I examined the law carefully. Article 10, Section 153 of the Special Provisions Relating To Illicit Alcoholic Beverages And Stills states the following:

Any person who shall manufacture any illicit alcoholic beverage or who, not being duly licensed as a distiller under the provisions of the alcoholic beverage control law, shall own, operate, possesses or have under his control any still or distilling apparatus is guilty of a felony. “Still” or “distilling apparatus shall mean any apparatus designed, intended, actually used, or capable of being used for or in connection with the separating of alcoholic or spirituous vapors, or alcohol or spirituous solutions, or alcohol or spirits, from alcohol or spirituous solutions or mixtures, but shall not include stills used for laboratory purposes or stills used for distilling water, oil, alcoholic or nonalcoholic materials where the cubic capacity of such stills is one gallon or less.

As I would only be distilling a liter and a half of wine in a non-presurized stock pot, and that I would not be selling the product nor transporting it across state lines, I feel that this is a safe project.

The ginger, rosemary leaves and flowers and the cloves were left to infuse for eight days before being poured, along with the wine, into a stockpot into which there was a brick topped with a ceramic bowl. The wine was brought to 170F,[18] the lid placed on the pot and bags of ice placed on top of the lid. This method of low-pressure distillation is often used for home perfume and oil making. The instructions came from a cooking show on how to make home made rose water.[19]

At 170F the alcohol will boil off and rise to the top of the container, where it will condense when in contact with the cold lid and fall into the bowl, which is insulated from the heat by the brick. A turkey baster was used to transfer the cordial from the bowl into a waiting container and the ice was replaced as needed. After two and a half hours, a little more than a pint of clear liquid was distilled out of the wine, meaning that about 4/5th of the original volume was discarded in the production of this cordial. A better still might have reduced this ratio, but I used what I had available.

After distillation, the cordial, now clear, possessed a slightly flowery aroma, and a harsh flavor of cloves. Cloves. A strong enough flavor that my tongue started to tingle, and then, get numb. I am glad that I only used ten cloves instead of a full half ounce. I did not have enough of the cordial to blend half with sugar, so I present only the base cordial.

Aging the cordial in oak might mellow out the flavor, but I am unaware of any period recipes that called for aging cordials. This is not a beverage for casual drinking, and it was not intended to be. Cordials, at this time, were considered to be medicine rather than after-dinner drinks. With the cost involved with the wine, spices, fuel and time, not to mention how little cordial one ends up with, cordials were expensive and I believe that they were made as needed and not mass produced. For people who wished just to get a buzz, there were more cost effective alcoholic beverages. The recipe does not provide any doses for water of cloves, but we can look at other cordial recipes: “...and distyllet aghen ghyf ou wolte and vse at of euer[e]ch day a lytel spone-ful fastyng.”;[20] “...and if a man haue nede, late hym take er-of morn and euyn iiii sponful at onys.”;[21] “helps digestion if two or three or four ounces thereof be drunk, and the patient composes himself to rest.”[22]

BIBLIOGRAPHY: 

DuBose Fred; Spingarn, Evan. The Ultimate Wine Lover’s Guide 2006. Sterling Publishing Company, Inc., 2005

Felter, Harvey Wickes and Lloyd, John Uri. King’s American Dispensatory. 1898. Scanned version by Henriette Kress, 1999

FitzMaurice, Forester Nigel. A Miscellany of Early Cordials. Http://web.raex.com/~obsidian/precwat.html

FitzMaurice, Forester Nigel. A Recipe For Spiced Wines. Http://web.raex.com/~obsidian/spcwine.html

French, John. The Art of Distillation. Or, A Treatise of the Choicest Spagyrical Preparations Performed by Way o£ Distillation, Being Partly Taken Out of the Most Select Chemical Authors of the Diverse Languages and Partly Out of the Author’s Manual Experience together with, The Description of the Chiefest Furnaces and Vessels Used by Ancient and Modern Chemists also A Discourse on Diverse Spagyrical Experiments and Curiosities, and of the Anatomy of Gold and Silver, with The Chiefest Preparations and Curiosities Thereof, and Virtues of Them All. All Which Are Contained In Six Books Composed By John French, Dr. of Physick. London. Printed by Richard Cotes and are to sold by Thomas Williams at the Bible in Little-Britain without Aldersgate, 1651. Http://www.levity.com/alchemy/jfren_ar.html

Frisinger, H. Howard. Aristole’s Legacy in Meteorology. “Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society:” Vol. 54, No. 3, pp. 198–204.

Hannum, Hurst. Brandies and Liqueurs of the World. Doubleday & Company, Garden City, N.Y.

Henslow, G. Medical Works of the Fourteenth Century. Burt Franklin, N.Y., N.Y. 1972 (reprint of the 1899 edn.)

Henslow, George. Medical Works of the Fourteenth Century: Together With a List Of Plants Recorded In Contemporary Writings, With Their Identifications. London: Chapman and Hall, ld., 1899. Archive.org call number: RS125 .H46 1899.

Hieatt, Constance B. and Jones Robin F. Two Anglo-Norman Culinary Collections Edited from British Library Manuscripts Additional 32085 and Royal 12.C.xii, “Speculum”, Vol. 61, No. 4 Oct. 1986

Jeffs, Julian. Sherry. Octopus Books, 2004

Liebault, John and Stevens, Charles. Le Maison Rustique or The Convntry Farms. Translated into English by Richard Surflet. Arnold Harfield. London. 1606.

Ludington, Charles. The Politics of Wine in Britain: A New Cultural History. Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.

Lukacs, Paul. Inventing Wine: A New History of One of the World’s Most Ancient Pleasures: A New History of One of the World’s Most Ancient Pleasures. W. W. Norton & Company, 2013

Maison rustique, or The countrey farme· Compyled in the French tongue by Charles Steuens, and Iohn Liebault, Doctors of Physicke. And translated into English by Richard Surflet, practitioner in physicke. Now newly reuiewed, corrected, and augmented, with diuers large additions, out of the works of Serres his Agriculture, Vinet his Maison champestre, French. Albyterio in Spanish, Grilli in Italian; and other authors. And the husbandrie of France, Italie, and Spaine, reconciled and made to agree with ours here in England: by Geruase Markham. Estienne, Charles, 1504-ca. 1564., Lie´bault, Jean, ca. 1535-1596. aut, Surflet, Richard, fl. 1600-1616., Markham, Gervase, 1568?-1637. London: Printed by Adam Islip for Iohn Bill, 1616. Estienne, Charles. Maison Rustique. Ann Arbor, MI ; Oxford (UK) :: Text Creation Partnership, 2003-09 (EEBO-TCP Phase 1), n.d. Web.

Mareschal, THL Alexander. Alcoholic Drinks of the Middle Ages. “Complete Anachronist” #60. http://home.sunlitsurf.com/~mshapiro/cliqueur.html#liqueur recipes

MacMillan, Lord Alistair. Wine. “Scum” Volume 1, number 16

Mencarelli, Fabio; Tonutti, Pietro. Sweet, Reinforced and Fortified Wines: Grape Biochemistry, Technology and Vinification. John Wiley & Sons, 2013

Millon, Marc. Wine: A Global History. Reaktion Books, 2013

Plat, Sir Hugh. A Closet for Ladies and Gentlevvomen. Or, The Art of Preseruing, Conseruing, and Candying. Entered in the Stationers Registry: 1 September 1602 London: Printed [by F. Kingston] for Arthur Iohnson, dvvelling neere the great north dore of Paules, 1608. Edited and Annotated by Johnna H. Holloway. Published through www.medievalcookery.com: 2011.

Plat, Sir Hugh. Delights for ladies to adorn their persons, tables, closets, and distillatories, with beauties, banquets, perfumes, and waters. London, Printed by J. Young, 1644.

Wilson, C. Anne. Food & Drink in Britain: From the Stone Age to the 19th Century. Academy Chicago Pub. 1991

Wright, F. B. A Practical Handbook On The Distillation Of Alcohol From Farm Products Including The Processes Of Malting; Mashing And Mascerating; Fermenting And Distilling Alcohol From Grain, Beets, Potatoes. Molasses, Etc.. With Chapters On Alcoholometry And The De-Naturing Of Alcohol For Use In Farm Engines, Automobiles, Launch Motors, And In Heating And Lighting; With A Synopsis Of The New Free Alcohol Law And Its Amendment And The Government Regulations. 2nd Edition. Spon & Chamberlain. New York. 1907

[1] A flavored non-distilled alcohol is hippocras
[2] 1517 and 1676 respectively
[3] Frisinger
[4] Anonymous
[5] Hannum, pp. 62
[6] Ibid., pp 5, 145.
[7] Maison rustique
[8] Culpeper, Culpeper’s Complete Herbal
[9] Culpeper, The English physitian
[10] Felter and Lloyd
[11] a spiced and sweetened wine, often served steaming hot
[12] 1272-1307
[13] Hieatt and Jones, provided by FitzMaurice
[14] From the bottle’s label.
[15] MacMillan
[16] Corwin, Florilegium
[17] Corwin, Creature.
[18] Measured using a digital thermometer.
[19] Good Eats: Switched on Baklava, aired in 2008.
[20] “...and distill again if you like, and take a little spoonful every day while fasting.” Johnstone Manuscript: 1400-1450, Henslow, p73
[21] “...and if a man have need, let him take 4 spoonfuls at once, morning and evening.” Sloane Manuscript 521: 1490-1500 Henslow, p142
[22] French, no page number listed