The following is the documentation for some red wine that I made a few years ago. The wine was not only entered in the Ice Dragon A&S Pentathlon, but used an an ingredient in another entry.
Red Wine
Introduction:
Wine is also very simple. You take a bunch of ripe, sound grapes. Crush them. For white wine, press them, collect the juice, tun it up, and let it ferment. For red wine, first let the crushed grapes, stems, and seeds ferment for a few months. Then press them, tun the already-fermenting must, and let it ferment for a while.[1]
What can one say about wine? It has been with human civilization since there has been civilization. The ancient Greeks equated drinking wine (watered wine, that is) as the pinnacle of civilized life.[2] One would imagine that wine would be one of the easiest things to document; right above water. I can sum up my proof with the following argument from Master Tofi Kerthjalfadsson: "Wine is period."[3] So, now that I have documented wine, go ahead and sample it. Try the veal, we’ll be here all week.
Okay. "Wine is period" is a true statement but it is unsuitable for an A&S competition. One will need more than the word of one Master Brewer to make actual documentation.
Known since ancient times, wine is an alcoholic beverage made of the fermented juices of fruit, typically grapes, which creates a flavorful drink. The primary division in wines is between red and white, with red wines being made from red grapes and white wines being made from "green" or "yellow" grapes (tangy grapes lacking dark pigmentation, not unripe grapes). To make wine, the grapes are pressed to extract the juice, then the juice is exposed to a specific kind of yeast, which converts (ferments) the sugar into alcohol over a long period. Additional aging improves the flavour of the wine, and many wines, especially red wines, are aged for years before consumption.[4]
The problem is that wine was such a daily staple for a large section of the world, very few people actually wrote down what they did.
Because wine was evolved along with civilization itself, and by the same people. It is not a product of geology, but of human culture and understanding. Without any comprehension of this ancient and extraordinarily complex culture of wine, how can our current comprehension of wine - & thus the pleasures we take in it - not be thinner and less rich? Who can comprehend this culture without reading the only texts that preserve it? How can these texts be read if they are unavailable to read? And yet they are. Not only because they are so rare in themselves as barely to be represented in the collections of any nation’s major libraries, but more inexcusably by far, because no anthology of the basic texts in the making and understanding of wine has ever, to my knowledge, been published. To me, this is as incomprehensible as the fact that there is no word for "wine-maker" in French.[5]
If only there was, somewhere, a piece of documentation from Period that shows without a doubt how wine was made. Perhaps if we truly believe that such a thing exists it will be real. Maybe if we all clap....
July, 210BCE
Dear Andromache
How are you and Mrs. Andromache and all the Andromachelets doing? Is she still making that delicious fermented beverage out of boiled grape juice and water in those new amphorae you brought home from Athens? Does she still leave the skins out of the must or has she started to leave them in to get red wine? By the by? Did she boil it for a half a candle mark or a full mark? Remember how we got so hammered on the last batch that you insulted that dude from Sparta? Have you regained the ability to walk, yet?
Regards.
Nikephoros[6]
Unfortunately, Nikephoros’s letter doesn’t exist and we have to look elsewhere for written proof. One of the earliest recipes for making wine (that I could find) comes from Mago the Carthaginian:
"Pick some well-ripened early grapes; discard any which are mildewed or damaged. Drive into the ground forked branches or stakes made of rods tied into bundles, at a distance of about four feet apart. Lay reeds across them and spread the grapes out in the sun on top. Cover them at night so that the dew will not moisten them. When they are dried, pick the grapes off the stems and put them in a jar or pitcher. Add some unfermented wine, the best you have, until the grapes are just covered. After six days, when the grapes have absorbed it all and are swollen, put them in a basket, put them through the press and collect the resulting liquid. Next press the marc, adding fresh unfermented wine made with other grapes which have been left in the sun for three days. Stir it well, and put it trough the press. Bottle at once in luted vessels the liquid produced by this second pressing, so that it will not turn sour. After twenty or thirty days when the fermentation is over, decant it into fresh vessels. Coat the lids with plaster and cover them with leather"[7]
And from the 17th Century George Hartman:
TO MAKE WINE OF ENGLISH GRAPES, TO BE AS STRONG, WHOLESOME AND PLEASING AS FRENCH WINEWhen you perceive your grapes to be plump and transparent, and the seeds or stones to come forth black and clear, and not clammy, and the stalks begin to wither then gather them, the weather being dry for some time before. Cut them off the branches and not pull them, and in the moon’s decrease, preserving them from bruises as much as you can, before you press out your wine. To every gallon of juice you must take two pounds of the best Malaga raisins picked from the stalks, and shread, put them together in a vat, the head being out, and let there be a tap at the bottom with a taphole, as in a meshtub; stir your liquor and raisins well together in a cask, which must be full, and leave the bunghole open, that it may work and cast out any foulness; after ten, twelve, or fourteen days, draw it off from the lees into a clean and dry cask, which must not be full, but leave a part of the vessel void or empty, stop it up close immediately, and that very well, lest it loose its spirits, which vacancy you may again supply when it has done working with other liquor or wine of the same that has also fermented in any other vessel. After you have thus closed up your bung, you ought to leave open the small venthole or fassethole, only loosely putting in the peg, or fasset, lest otherwise the wild spirits that are in the liquor force a passage; which by the easy stopping of this vent and sometimes opening it may be prevented until you find it hath wasted that wild spirit.[8]
Alright. Thanks to the long dead Mago, and to a 17th Century Alchemist, we know that the method of making wine hasn’t changed all that much in the 1800 years that separated them. It hasn’t changed much since George Hartman wrote his book,
The Family Physitian. We know that wine has been part of history, but where did wine come from? Prehistoric people found grapes growing on wild vines, ate the fruit and squashed the grapes in their hands and underfoot to make juice. When they tried to keep this juice for a day or two in their simple clay pots, they noticed that it began to bubble and take on a different character. The fermented result led to many a splendid party. This started to happen around 6,000 BCE.[9] The oldest, surviving wine jars date to 5,400 to 5,000 BCE and has been named "Chateau Hajji Firuz" in honor of where they were found in Iran.[10]
The Egyptians were probably the first to start writing about wine sometime around 2,500 BCE. Wine was probably well established throughout the Mediterranean and middle east by this time. There are frequent references to wine and wine making in the Old Testament. Wine jars have been found in early Minoan, Greek, Etruscan, Phoenician and Babylonian archaeology digs.
... the first preserved example of Greek alphabetic writing, scratched onto an Athenian wine jug of about 740 B.C., is a line of poetry announcing a dancing contest: ‘Whoever of all dancers performs most nimbly will win this vase as a prize’. The next example is three lines of dactylic hexameter scratched onto a drinking cup: ‘I am Nestor’s delicious drinking cup. Whoever drinks from this cup swiftly will the desire of fair-crowned Aphrodite seize him’. The earliest preserved examples of the Etruscan and Roman alphabets are also inscriptions on drinking cups and wine containers. Only later did the alphabet’s easily learned vehicle of private communication become co-opted for public or bureaucratic purposes.[11]
The Romans were the ones who introduced wine to Western Europe, especially the Moselle and Rhine valley sections of France and Germany and the Danube River valley of Austria. Possibly even England (The variety planted to produce the daily ration may have been Wrotham Pinot)[12] Where ever the Roman legions went, grape vines followed. Following the voyages of Columbus and other explorers, grape cultivation was transported from the Old World to Mexico, South America, South Africa, Australia, and California. Today wine is produced on all the inhabited continents.[13]
Before I continue, let me specify that for the purpose of this documentation, when I say "wine," I mean an alcoholic beverage made from fermented grapes; Vitis vinifera sylvestris to be exact. Most wine in the world is fermented from this one species of grape,[14] although there are close to 4,000 varieties available, differing in size, color, shape, sugar content, ripening time, disease resistance and what the French call "terroir," the taste of the Earth. The grapes which grew in this part of France taste different from the grapes grown in that part of Egypt. It is the high sugar content of Vitis vinifera that makes it perfect for wine making. From the grapes’s natural sugar content, a wine is produced with enough alcohol in it to ward off spoilage.[15] Grapes with too little sugar do not produce a high enough alcohol content to fight bacteria and either must be consumed quickly or spoil or they turn into vinegar.
Since grape juice is normally colorless (though some varieties have a pink to red color), the color of the resultant wine is dependent on the color of the skin of the grape and how long it is kept in the fermenter. The skin and the seeds also contribute to the amount of tannins found in the resultant wine: the longer they are left in the must, the darker the color and stronger the flavor will be in the end product.
Wine was normally kept in large ceramic jars, known as amphorae, in ancient times. To keep flies, oxygen and bacteria out of the wine, a layer of olive oil was floated on top. Unfortunately, the olive oil did not keep the wine inside the amphorae, particularly when it was mishandled when shipped. A plug was developed made of pine and sealed to the necks of the amphorae with a mixture of clay and resin. The pine and resin mixed with the wine and added it’s own particular flavor. The Phoenicians and Greeks came to believe that the resin preserved the wine and they began to prefer the flavor of the resin infused wine over the non-flavored wine. The Greeks had such a taste for this wine that "Retsina" wine is still produced today, even though wine is no longer shipped in pine resin sealed clay pots.[16] Later on, once cooping technology was perfected, wine was stored and aged in wood barrels and casks.
After the collapse of the great Roman Empire most the knowledge of grape vine maintenance, as well as wine making, was lost in Europe. Fortunately for us, the early monasteries possessed the knowledge and owned most of the land that the old vineyards were on. Soon, these monasteries were producing wine in great amounts. Saint Remi presented the first king of the Franks, Clovis, with a cask of wine from Champagne.[17]
Procedure:
This entry is a wine that was vinted in mid 2010. The wine was made with 25 pounds of locally grown red, seedless grapes,[18] which were purchased at my corner farmer’s market, three gallons of water and one packet of Mutton’s wine yeast. The grapes were sufficiently sweet enough to not require any additional sugar to be added.
Not owning a wine press, I stripped the grapes from their stems and mashed them, the grapes, in a mixing bowl with a potato masher. The juice, pulp, skins and stems were placed into a stockpot with 1/2 gallon of water and boiled to kill off any wild yeast. After boiling for one minute, the must was transferred into the primary fermenter, along with the additional 2.5 gallons of water. Since the wine was going to be fermented in plastic and glass, I added two ounces of oak chips (also boiled) to the fermenter. My hope was the oak would give the wine some additional flavor. After allowing the must to cool overnight, I pitched the wine yeast and left it alone for two weeks.
After two weeks I racked the liquid into the secondary fermenter and discarded the remains. After six months the wine was racked over into the tertiary fermenter. After an additional six months, it was racked into the quaternary fermenter. It was left in the quaternary fermenter for around 18 months before being bottled. The resulting wine is pale red, dry yet with a touch of sweetness and a bit acidic. As I do not know what variety of grapes I used were, I can do no more than call my wine "red." But, were red wines known in period?
Red Wine:
... By the mid 13th century, three fourths of England’s royal wine came from Bordeaux, at a freight charge of 8 shillings the ton. The wine fleet convened twice a year; in October for the "vintage" shipping, and in February for the "rack" shipping of wine drawn off the lees. We have Bordeaux’s export figures for seven years of the early 14th century, averaging 83,000 tonneaux of 12 score and 12 gallons each. England took about half of this, and when the new wine arrived, last year’s was halved in price, or even just thrown away. These wines were the common drink, lower in status the Mediterranean and Rhenish wines, but they were plentiful and cheap. Bordeaux made three kinds of wines: white, red , and clairet. Until about 1600, clairet meant a light colored wine, ranging from yellow, as distinct from white, to pink. To get the desired pink color, called "partridge-eye", red and white wines were often mixed. Red wines then would have been very light. They were only on the skins one day, and absorbed little color and tannins. After the wine was drawn off, the remainder, redder and coarser, was used for tinting wine, or sold cheaply as "vin vermeilh" or "pin pin". This amounted to about 15%.[19]
Samuel Pegge’s
The Forme of Cury states in the preference, "Wine is common, both red, and white... This article they partly had of their own growth, and partly by importation from France and Greece. They had also Rhenish, and probably several other sorts. The 'vynegreke' is among the sweet wines...."
The most popular wines in the 14th century were (in order of preference) sweet Mediterranean wines, white Rhenish wines, and Claret. The red wines of Burgundy were highly prized, and could still be drunk after two years, but were scarce and more difficult to obtain in England. Claret was definitely a young wine, when a new vintage arrived from Bordeaux, the price of the previous vintage was usually cut in half (or the old wine was simply discarded).[20]
Angharad ver’ Rhuawn posted on Stefan’s Florilegium the following, "They classified wines as red, white, and sweet. There is list of wines of all three sorts in John Russell’s
Boke of Nurture. There are recipes that call specifically for red, some that call for white, some that call for specific sweet sorts (wine greke, vernage, etc.). I infer from this that period wines were not all markedly sweet, or they would not make the largest distinctions in that area."
The Book of Keruynge, published in 1508, makes the following list of wine names: Reed wyne, whyte wyne, claret whyne, osey, capryke, campolet, renysshe wyne maluely, bastarde, tyerre romney, muscadell, clarrey, raspys, vernage, vernage wyne cut, pymente and Ipocras."
... By the reign of Edward III (1327-1377) the trade in French wine had reached amazing proportions. Ships of that time were rated at the number of tonnes (252 gallon casks of wine) they could carry. To this day, we speak of ship "tonnage" when we refer to ocean freight transport. The wine fleet would sail for France in late autumn, returning before Christmas with "new wine". They would sail again after Easter in the spring, and return with "rack wine" of the same vintage. In 1372, the wine fleet consisted of some 200 ships, with average tonnage well over 50 tonnes per ship, for a total cargo of over 3 million gallons of wine that year. The English even had their own name for much of this wine. The French used the term clairet to refer to the light red wine of Bordeaux, before it was blended with heavier, darker red wine from elsewhere in France. It was this that the English came to call Claret. ... Meanwhile, back in Europe, William Turner published the first English book on wines, "A new Boke of the natures and properties of all Wines that are commonlye used here in England", in 1568. It was primarily a physician’s view on wines, with Turner denouncing red wines, while advocating "whyte Rhennish and whyte French" wines. In 1577, William Harrison identified 56 varieties of small, weak wines (both red and white) that were drunk by the English people, and 30 kinds of sweet wines.[21]
TO MAKE IPOCRAS WITH RED WINE"Take a gallon of wine, three ounces of cinamon, two ounces of slic’t ginger, a quarter of an ounce of cloves, an ounce of mace, twenty corns of pepper, an ounce of nutmegs, three pound of sugar, and two quarts of cream."[22]
Aged Wine:
Having shown that red wines are indeed period, I now tackle the second issue: were wines aged or consumed straight out of the fermenter?
"...in 1302 Petrus de Crescentiis of Bologna in his "Liber Commodorum Ruralium" said that the right age for wine was neither new (first year) nor old, which according to the "Vintage’s" author suggests that he preferred one or two year old wine best. The author goes on to state that the majority of critics held that it was better simply to wait until fermentation was over and drink up. "The more northern ( and weaker) the wine the more important to drink it quickly." Further reference suggests Burgundy of high quality was drinkable at two years and according to the author, "The only known reference from the Middle Ages to any wine being especially good at as old as four years was, remarkably enough, the exceptional Chablis vintage of 1396." The author says that according to the Catalan author Eiximenis "...the French like white wines, Burgundians red, Germans aromatic, and the English beer."[23]
Jin Liu Ch’ang posted the following on the Rialto in July 1998 under the subject line of "When did they start aging wine?"
David/Cariadoc asked in a post on June 29th about the history of aging wine. It took me awhile to remember to pull out the copy of William Turner’s 1568 book, "A Book of Wines" which I have checked out from the library. Apparently, from what I can gleam from the words of William Turner, aging of wines was well known in England in his time period. Apparently, however, most people drank wine still in the act of fermenting and freshly fermented wine which he called (and what I believe is still called) must. ... In his capacity as an medicinal herbalist and scientist, he considered this to be wrong and stated reasons against this and quoted earlier writers including Galen and Aloisius Mundella in his arguments. He quoted Galen as defining wine not five years old as new wine, wine 5-10 years old as middle aged and wine over 10 years old as old aged. As would probably occur in present times, he found that experts disagree on the times for aging wines as Aloisuis Mundella considered the dividing age between new and middle aged wine to be six years. He also discussed the varieties of wine available in England from the wine import trade naming them by where they originated, their color, age, taste, and smell. As a physician/herbalist, he also delineated wine by their dry/moist and cold/hot character. All wine was considered hot to some degree. An old wine was considered hotter than a new wine and yellow and red wines were hotter than white wines. The dryness was accorded to the degree of heat along with sweetness. In his opinion, young people being naturally hot should not drink wine as all wines are hot to some degree. If they were to drink, as the young are hot and moist they should drink dry white wines while the older people being more cold and dry should drink sweet red wines which are more hot and less dry. From his discussion, it is apparent that aging wines was quite common in 16th Century England and a variety of wines were available for consumption, although like present times most wines were not aged to the degree that the wine makers would have preferred. His complaints about the drinking of too young wine are very similar to views I have hear from modern commercial vintners who complain about people buying their wines and drinking them right away instead of aging them properly.
Glass Bottles:
The Romans also enjoyed aged wines; 10-25 years old was considered the best.[24] But, were they aged in glass bottles as my wine was? Was there enough glass available to be used for wine? In Mesopotamia, Egypt and Greece, wine was stored, and aged, in large, clay jars, called amphorae. When Rome became an empire, they developed the technology to produce glass bottles in large numbers. The oldest bottle of wine on record dates back to 325 AD.[25] The bottle was excavated from an old Roman sarcophagus in Germany.
Unearthed during excavation for building a house in a vineyard near the town of Speyer, Germany, it was inside one of two Roman stone sarcophaguses that were dug up. The bottle dates from approximately 325 A.D. and was found in 1867. The greenish-yellow glass amphora has handles formed in the shape of dolphins. One of several bottles discovered, it is the only one with the contents still preserved. The ancient liquid has much silty sediment. About two-thirds of the contents are a thicker, hazy mixture. This is most probably olive oil, which the Romans commonly used to "float" atop wine to preserve it from oxidation. Cork closures, although known to exist at the time, were quite uncommon. Their oil method of preservation was apparently effective enough to keep the wine from evaporation up to modern day. The bottle is on permanent display, along with other wine antiquities, at the Historisches Museum der Pfalz (History Museum of the Pfalz), which is worth a virtual visit or an actual one, if traveling near the area of Speyer, Germany.[26]
1700 years is a long time to age wine; none of my references detail the taste of this ancient wine so I cannot report if the wait was worth it.
The Romans may have transported their wine throughout the Empire in clay pots, but they used glass to sell it. Why glass, when it was expensive to make and breakable? The benefits where obvious: it did not affect the wine’s flavor; you could see wine and make sure that there was nothing in it such as bugs or haze; the bottles themselves were signs of wealth. Unfortunately, bottles at the time were hand blown and varied in size and shape; there was no standard for a glass bottle and no way to make a standard size. The legality of selling wine in glass bottles flip-flopped every few years depending on who was making the laws in Rome; since the bottles varied in size, shape and wall thickness, the consumer never knew who much wine they were buying for any given glass bottle. Consumers found ways around this buy purchasing a glass bottle and then purchase a known amount of wine from a wine seller to fill their bottle. This is similar to modern "growlers." Of course, any such laws did not apply to the uber expensive wines that the very wealthy purchased.
Were the Romans the only one to use glass to age their wine? There is no evidence of glass bottle making in Europe during the "dark ages" after the fall of the Roman Empire. The technology was lost to Europe until the 13th century and the Crusades. When the Crusaders conquered Constantinople[27] the Venetians "hired" the best Greek and Turkish glass makers. With these "Phiolìeri,"[28] Venice was set to become Europe’s leader in glass making for centuries. England surpassed Italy in production and quality in the 17th century, thanks to Sir Kenelm Digby, who developed a process of using coal to melt the glass completely and new methods of blowing glass bottles to uniform standards. Historians still cannot all agree the Sir Digby was the actual inventor of this process (or of the ‘cork’ cork[29]) since there is no letter of patent that was granted to him for this process. However, he wasn’t given a knighthood just because of his cook book.
So, it should be clear by now that red wine existed at many different time periods, that it was aged and aged in glass bottles, again during many different time periods. I would like to conclude my documentation with the following quote:
But it is easy to overlook two important points when reading early texts on wine-making. First, the majority of these texts weren’t intended for commercial winegrowers to begin with. Of course an estate owner might sell some of his excess production; but he, his family and friends would drink the rest; thus, he had a direct interest in its quality, and the purpose of these texts was to increase that quality, not to increase his income. Second, the fact that so much of the wine in any region is wretched should by no means imply that none is good, any more than it would with respect to food.[30]
[1] Taylor, p4
[2] Standage, p52
[3] Wine and Clarrey
[4] Cunnan
[5] Thackrey, Library
[6] Not a real letter from 210BCE
[7] From the only volume of Mago’s work to be saved from the fire which destroyed the libraries of Carthage in 146 B.C.: Rusticques
[8] Hartman
[9] Standage, p47
[10] McGovern
[11] Diamond, p236
[12] Schwaesdall Winery
[13] There are no "official" vinters in Anartica but the luxury Ice Class Ship, The Antarctic Dream, does offer wine tastings on that icy continent
[14] Other grape species used for wine include V. labrusca and V. rotundifolia. Neither of these normally contain sufficient sugar at maturity to make wine with an alcohol content of 10 percent. Sugar must be added to produce a stable wine from these grapes. They may also have more acidity, which gives the wines a "foxy" flavor.
[15] About 10%
[16] http://www.retsina.info
[17] Corwin, Creature.
[18] I do not know what variety the grapes were, except that they were not Welch’s grape jelly flavor grapes.
[19] MacMillan
[20] Corwin, Florilegium
[21] Corwin, Creature.
[22] May
[23] Johnson
[24] Shea
[25] Wineopedia
[26] Professional Friends of Wine
[27] Now it’s Istanbul, not Constantinople
[28] These glassmakers were called “Phiolìeri” because they blew vials, i.e. bottles (Les fiales de vin), as told by chronicler of the era Martino da Canale.
[29] The Benedictine cellarer Dom Perignon is also credited with inventing the ‘cork’ cork.
[30] Thackrey
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